Factors associated with parenting self-efficacy: A systematic review.

Most included studies were cross-sectional, so they cannot show whether a factor causes lower parenting self-efficacy or lower confidence leads to the factor. Many factors were studied by only one or two studies, so the evidence is thin for most of the 89 factors. The review used general parenting self-efficacy, which the authors state is less sensitive to specific parenting tasks than task-specific measures. Most studies were among mothers only, so findings may not apply equally to fathers. Parenting self-efficacy was measured with different self-report tools, and the items varied. Only English peer-reviewed articles were included, so publication bias and missing studies cannot be ruled out. Most samples came from developed countries and children were mostly aged 0-6 years, limiting generalisability.

No conflicts of interest were declared. Funding was from a China Scholarship Council scholarship.

Do not read these associations as proof that reducing depression, stress or child behaviour problems will raise parenting self-efficacy. Most included studies were cross-sectional and self-reported, so they show co-occurrence, not cause or effect.